THE USE OF ICT IN TEACHING
For effective teaching and learning, teachers ought to employ different ways and means. Which will appeal to the senses of the pupils in the classroom, necessary stimuli must be provided by the teacher in other to elicit the desired response. It is well known among educators that the educational experiences involving the learner actively participating in concrete examples are retained longer than abstract experiences. ICT’s materials are no doubt most effective in stimulating these senses. These senses include hearing, smelling, feeling and sight in other to increase the children’s level of perception.
The teaching of social studies courses has always been based on a limited knowledge, and as a result, the utilisation of the ICT media among teachers often relies on traditional applications of technology. There is, however, a tremendous potential for technology to be fostered as a tool that can overcome the traditional isolation of the classroom setting (Braun, 1997), provide access to expensive resources (Becker & Ravitz,1999) and improve overall productivity (Saye, 1998). To achieve the desired outcomes with the utilization of technology, the teaching of the social studies courses must focus not only on making teachers competent at using such technology, but at the same time, promote strategies that enable the integration of technology that enhances teaching and learning of the subject.
Bolick et al., (2003) pointed to a precarious relationship between the teaching of the social studies and the utilisation of technology. They argued that “…… while some educators have been fascinated by the potential of technology to enhance teaching and learning, many schools have lagged behind in assimilating technology into instruction. Others expressed doubt that technology will ever incite instructional reform in the social studies e. g. (Berson, 1996), Shaver (1999) …”.They stated that this conflict “… has led some researchers to conclude that the social studies has not appreciably changed as a result of technology e. g. (Martorella, 1997; White, 1997)…”.
In fact, Woodrow (1992) asserts that any successful transformation in educational practice requires the development of positive user attitude toward new technology. The development of teachers’ positive attitudes toward ICT is very significant factor not only for increasing computer integration but also for avoiding teachers’ resistance to ICT use (Watson, 1998). Whitworth & Berson (2003) indicate that there is a need for research on the use and effectiveness of technology in social studies classrooms that would enhance social studies education.
In tandem with technological advancement, the usage of the instructional media has dramatically increased in the last two decades (Descy, 1991). According to Abu Jaber (1987), the importance of instructional media for both teachers and students cannot be overemphasized. In social studies, the use of instructional media is essential to support learning because social studies are concerned about natural and social phenomena which cannot be easily expressed without the support of graphics maps, video, pictures, etc. Curzon (1997) points out that using instructional media in social studies classrooms widens the channel of communication between teachers and their students. The instructional media allow the growth of specific learning abilities and enhance intellectual skills and motor skills. The use of charts and models enables the teacher to present and illustrate many physical phenomena and issues easily and at the same time, allows them to focus attention on the characteristics of objects.
In the computer-based instructional media, Davidson (1996) stated that the use of such media in geography lessons is imperative as it makes a valuable contribution to the quality of student learning. Such media can be used in several ways in geography lessons. PowerPoint, for instance, can be used to present geographical issues and data loggers for collecting weather data electronically. Recece & Walker (2001) also pointed out that it is important to use learning aids to enhance student learning experience and they stress the link between poor learning with the failure to use visual aids and similarly effective learning to the professional use of visual aids.
Molstad (1974) also found that the proper use of instructional media positively affects students' achievements. Bailey & Fox (1996) also find that computer graphics maps are the effective way of presenting spatial information and for geography courses, such maps are considered the most important tool for illustrations. Teachers need to use them effectively in the classrooms and give opportunity to pupils to learn about different types of maps starting from simple sketch maps to complex geographical information system (GIS) maps.
In terms of media involving television, Lambert & Balderstone (2000) added that televisions in the classroom are making an increasingly significant contribution to the teaching and learning of geography where pupils can learn about other cultures and develop their sense of place. They also reported that besides TVs, photographs and slides are also important sources of visual materials that help teachers to bring reality into their classroom. Such media also assist in developing students’ knowledge, vocabulary, awareness and interpretation skills. Moreover, teachers can go further from just illustrating the content to exploring values, attitudes and beliefs from the media.
Thursday, April 16, 2009
Wednesday, March 11, 2009
ASCRIPTION AND EDUCATION
QUESTION
Describe very clearly how the concept of ascription has worked against certain individuals in achieving academic excellence.
Introduction
In all of the many social groups that we as individuals belong to, we have a status and a role to fulfill. Status is our relative social position within a group, while a role is the part our society expects us to play in a given status. For example, a man may have the status of father in his family. Because of this status, he is expected to fulfill a role for his children that in most societies require him to nurture, educate, guide, and protect them. Of course, mothers usually have complementary roles
However, the concept of Ascription is the social status a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. For example, a person born into a wealthy family has a high ascribed status. In contrast, an achieved status is a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and merit.
Also when a person's position in society is fixed (or ascribed to him or her by others) on the basis of family background or genetic inheritance, Racial, ethnic, and religious differences, as well as gender; often serve as the basis for ascribed status. Other people that are born into ascribed status are people born into royalty. Since the child came into the world with their care givers having royal lineage, the child has inherited those royal blood lines as well this means that status can be either Ascribed or Achieved.
Ascribed statuses are the result of being born into a particular family or being born male or female. Being a prince by birth or being the first of four children in a family are ascribed statuses. We do not make a decision to choose them--they are not voluntary statuses. We do not pick the family we are born into nor do we usually select our own gender thus, Ascribed Status means an inherited status that symbolizes ownership of wealth and vast land. The royal family fall into this category While,
Achieved statuses are ones that are acquired by doing something. For instance, someone becomes a criminal by committing a crime. A soldier earns the status of a good warrior by achievements in battle and by being brave. A woman becomes a mother by having a baby. She also can acquire the status of a ‘widow’ by the death of her husband thus; Achieved Status means the educators and entrepreneurs who have made their money from business and hard work. Firstly they started small and slowly expanded and made their wealth in this way.
ASCRIPTION AND EDUCATION
The implication of ascription in any society is the fact that social inequality exits in every aspect of the society in terms of prestige, power, educational opportunities and wealth. Members of the society who belong to the same social class share similar lifestyle, which distinguishes them from other members of the society from other strata.
Ascription no dough has resulted to worked against certain individuals in achieving academic excellence due to the following reasons:
UNEQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY: Due to the existence of ascribed status in every society, there is no equilibrium in the provision of schools at all level as well as in the enrolment opportunity into the available schools. Since majority of students are admitted into schools not base on merit but on some form of ascription of family affiliation, tribe, gender or religion. This means that no matter what some people will be deprive of academic opportunity.
LACK OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES: Ascription has made it possible for some people (students) to have proper assess to educational materials and resources such as Text-books, Internet, extra-lessons, seminars and workshops. While others are limited in these areas as a result they are disadvantaged in the pursued of academic excellence which is mainly caused by ascription.
SCHOOL’S RESTRICTION: Ascription has restricted certain schools for people of a particular class and status due to the high rate of school fees so that those who could not pay are excluded. These schools are usually well equipped with educational resource, both man and material to ensure educational excellence, and this certainly worked against certain individuals who are from the low class. Such schools are mostly private.
Less preparedness of children at school age due to their family poor social class made it less likely for them to attain educational excellence because by the time they start pursuing their educational goals they most have grown into adults which will affect their educational performance.
Finally, primary schools which is the most important level of educational attainment as the foundation needs to be well organized and equipped but the reverse is the case as most primary schools today were the schools are in a terrible state without windows, doors or desk. These schools are attained by students from poor home and social class.
CONCLUSION
Due to ascription it is not possible for any society to maintain and egalitarian nature were all its members will be equal and enjoy similar privileges in various areas of society life.
Considering the facts above it is paramount to say that the concept of ascription has worked against certain individuals in achieving academic excellence. As people will not be expose to equal educational opportunity which will lead to different academic performance.
REFERENCES
Michael Marmot (2004), The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity, Times Books
O'Neil, Dennis, (2006). Status and Role. Corel Corporation. http://anthro.palomar.edu/status/stat_2.htm.
Robert J. Sampson; Jeffery . Morennoff and Thomas Gannon-Rowley, Assessing Neighborhood Effects: Social Process and New Directions in Research, The annual Review of Sociology, 2002.
Stark, Rodney. 2007 Sociology Tenth Edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education
Stark, Rodney, (2007). Sociology, Tenth Edition Quebecor World/Versailles. ISBN: 0-495-09344-0
ASCRIPTION AND EDUCATION
QUESTION
Describe very clearly how the concept of ascription has worked against certain individuals in achieving academic excellence.
Introduction
In all of the many social groups that we as individuals belong to, we have a status and a role to fulfill. Status is our relative social position within a group, while a role is the part our society expects us to play in a given status. For example, a man may have the status of father in his family. Because of this status, he is expected to fulfill a role for his children that in most societies require him to nurture, educate, guide, and protect them. Of course, mothers usually have complementary roles
However, the concept of Ascription is the social status a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. For example, a person born into a wealthy family has a high ascribed status. In contrast, an achieved status is a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and merit.
Also when a person's position in society is fixed (or ascribed to him or her by others) on the basis of family background or genetic inheritance, Racial, ethnic, and religious differences, as well as gender; often serve as the basis for ascribed status. Other people that are born into ascribed status are people born into royalty. Since the child came into the world with their care givers having royal lineage, the child has inherited those royal blood lines as well this means that status can be either Ascribed or Achieved.
Ascribed statuses are the result of being born into a particular family or being born male or female. Being a prince by birth or being the first of four children in a family are ascribed statuses. We do not make a decision to choose them--they are not voluntary statuses. We do not pick the family we are born into nor do we usually select our own gender thus, Ascribed Status means an inherited status that symbolizes ownership of wealth and vast land. The royal family fall into this category While,
Achieved statuses are ones that are acquired by doing something. For instance, someone becomes a criminal by committing a crime. A soldier earns the status of a good warrior by achievements in battle and by being brave. A woman becomes a mother by having a baby. She also can acquire the status of a ‘widow’ by the death of her husband thus; Achieved Status means the educators and entrepreneurs who have made their money from business and hard work. Firstly they started small and slowly expanded and made their wealth in this way.
ASCRIPTION AND EDUCATION
The implication of ascription in any society is the fact that social inequality exits in every aspect of the society in terms of prestige, power, educational opportunities and wealth. Members of the society who belong to the same social class share similar lifestyle, which distinguishes them from other members of the society from other strata.
Ascription no dough has resulted to worked against certain individuals in achieving academic excellence due to the following reasons:
UNEQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY: Due to the existence of ascribed status in every society, there is no equilibrium in the provision of schools at all level as well as in the enrolment opportunity into the available schools. Since majority of students are admitted into schools not base on merit but on some form of ascription of family affiliation, tribe, gender or religion. This means that no matter what some people will be deprive of academic opportunity.
LACK OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES: Ascription has made it possible for some people (students) to have proper assess to educational materials and resources such as Text-books, Internet, extra-lessons, seminars and workshops. While others are limited in these areas as a result they are disadvantaged in the pursued of academic excellence which is mainly caused by ascription.
SCHOOL’S RESTRICTION: Ascription has restricted certain schools for people of a particular class and status due to the high rate of school fees so that those who could not pay are excluded. These schools are usually well equipped with educational resource, both man and material to ensure educational excellence, and this certainly worked against certain individuals who are from the low class. Such schools are mostly private.
Less preparedness of children at school age due to their family poor social class made it less likely for them to attain educational excellence because by the time they start pursuing their educational goals they most have grown into adults which will affect their educational performance.
Finally, primary schools which is the most important level of educational attainment as the foundation needs to be well organized and equipped but the reverse is the case as most primary schools today were the schools are in a terrible state without windows, doors or desk. These schools are attained by students from poor home and social class.
CONCLUSION
Due to ascription it is not possible for any society to maintain and egalitarian nature were all its members will be equal and enjoy similar privileges in various areas of society life.
Considering the facts above it is paramount to say that the concept of ascription has worked against certain individuals in achieving academic excellence. As people will not be expose to equal educational opportunity which will lead to different academic performance.
REFERENCES
Michael Marmot (2004), The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity, Times Books
O'Neil, Dennis, (2006). Status and Role. Corel Corporation. http://anthro.palomar.edu/status/stat_2.htm.
Robert J. Sampson; Jeffery . Morennoff and Thomas Gannon-Rowley, Assessing Neighborhood Effects: Social Process and New Directions in Research, The annual Review of Sociology, 2002.
Stark, Rodney. 2007 Sociology Tenth Edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education
Stark, Rodney, (2007). Sociology, Tenth Edition Quebecor World/Versailles. ISBN: 0-495-09344-0
Tuesday, March 10, 2009
SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
According to NCSS (National Council for the Social Studies), Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world.
In essence, social studies promote knowledge of and involvement in civic affairs. And because civic issues - such as health care, crime, and foreign policy - are multidisciplinary in nature, understanding these issues and developing resolutions to them require multidisciplinary education. These characteristics are the key defining aspects of social studies. Therefore social studies is concern with the whole of man, and his environment.
SOCIAL STUDIES AND EDUCATION
The themes that form the framework of the social studies standards are responsible for its relationship with education.
Firstly, the study of culture prepares students to answer questions such as: What are the common characteristics of different cultures? How do belief systems, such as religion or political ideals, influence other parts of the culture? How does the culture change to accommodate different ideas and beliefs? What does language tell us about the culture? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with geography, history, sociology, and anthropology, as well as multicultural topics across the curriculum.
Secondly, human beings seek to understand their historical roots and to locate themselves in time. Knowing how to read and reconstruct the past allows one to develop a historical perspective and to answer questions such as: Who am I? What happened in the past? How am I connected to those in the past? How has the world changed and how might it change in the future? Why does our personal sense of relatedness to the past change? This theme typically appears in courses in history and others that draw upon historical knowledge and habits.
Thirdly the study of people, places, and human-environment interactions assists students as they create their spatial views and geographic perspectives of the world beyond their personal locations. Students need the knowledge, skills, and understanding to answer questions such as: Where are things located? Why are they located where they are? What do we mean by "region"? How do landforms change? What implications do these changes have for people? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with area studies and geography.
Fourthly, personal identity is shaped by one's culture, by groups, and by institutional influences. Students should consider such questions as: How do people learn? Why do people behave as they do? What influences how people learn, perceive, and grow? How do people meet their basic needs in a variety of contexts? How do individuals develop from youth to adulthood? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with psychology and anthropology.
Again, institutions such as schools, churches, families, government agencies, and the courts play an integral role in people's lives. It is important that students learn how institutions are formed, what controls and influences them, how they influence individuals and culture, and how they are maintained or changed. Students may address questions such as: What is the role of institutions in this and other societies? How am I influenced by institutions? How do institutions change? What is my role in institutional change? In schools this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with sociology, anthropology, psychology, political science, and history.
Understanding the historical development of structures of power, authority, and governance and their evolving functions in society and other parts of the world is essential for developing civic competence. In exploring this theme, students confront questions such as: What is power? What forms does it take? Who holds it? How is it gained, used, and justified? What is legitimate authority? How are governments created, structured, maintained, and changed? How can individual rights be protected within the context of majority rule? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with government, politics, political science, history, law, and other social sciences.
Furthermore, because people have wants that often exceed the resources available to them, a variety of ways have evolved to answer such questions as: What is to be produced? How is production to be organized? How are goods and services to be distributed? What is the most effective allocation of the factors of production (land, labor, capital, and management)? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with economic concepts and issues.
Modern life as we know it would be impossible without technology and the science that supports it. But technology brings with it many questions: Is new technology always better than old? What can we learn from the past about how new technologies result in broader social change, some of which is unanticipated? How can we cope with the ever-increasing pace of change? How can we manage technology so that the greatest number of people benefit from it? How can we preserve our fundamental values and beliefs in the midst of technological change? This theme draws upon the natural and physical sciences, social sciences, and the humanities, and appears in a variety of social studies courses, including history, geography, economics, civics, and government.
However, the realities of global interdependence require understanding the increasingly important and diverse global connections among world societies and the frequent tension between national interests and global priorities. Students will need to be able to address such international issues as health care, the environment, human rights, economic competition and interdependence, age-old ethnic enmities, and political and military alliances. This theme typically appears in units or courses dealing with geography, culture, and economics, but may also draw upon the natural and physical sciences and the humanities.
Finally, an understanding of civic ideals and practices of citizenship is critical to full participation in society and is a central purpose of the social studies. Students confront such questions as: What is civic participation and how can I be involved? How has the meaning of citizenship evolved? What is the balance between rights and responsibilities? What is the role of the citizen in the community and the nation, and as a member of the world community? How can I make a positive difference? In schools, this theme typically appears in units or courses dealing with history, political science, cultural anthropology, and fields such as global studies, law-related education, and the humanities.
REFERENCES
Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, (1998) NCSS Publications. Waldorf, Maryland.
Okam, C.C (1998). Teaching Issues, Insights & Problems in the social studies education in Nigeria: Deka Publications Jos.
Banks, J. A. (1977). Strategy for teaching ethnic studies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J. A. and Clegg, A. A. (1977). Teaching Strategies for the Social Studies: Inquiry, Valuing and Decision making: Reading Addison – Wesley Publication Company.
Inquiry page (2007) knowledge begins with asking questions http://www.inquiry.uiuc.edu/inquiry/process.php3
Adam Fletcher (n.d) for SoundOut Student Voice in School Building Leadership
What can students really do to lead schools? Retrieved fron the internet at http://www.soundout.org/article.105.html
In essence, social studies promote knowledge of and involvement in civic affairs. And because civic issues - such as health care, crime, and foreign policy - are multidisciplinary in nature, understanding these issues and developing resolutions to them require multidisciplinary education. These characteristics are the key defining aspects of social studies. Therefore social studies is concern with the whole of man, and his environment.
SOCIAL STUDIES AND EDUCATION
The themes that form the framework of the social studies standards are responsible for its relationship with education.
Firstly, the study of culture prepares students to answer questions such as: What are the common characteristics of different cultures? How do belief systems, such as religion or political ideals, influence other parts of the culture? How does the culture change to accommodate different ideas and beliefs? What does language tell us about the culture? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with geography, history, sociology, and anthropology, as well as multicultural topics across the curriculum.
Secondly, human beings seek to understand their historical roots and to locate themselves in time. Knowing how to read and reconstruct the past allows one to develop a historical perspective and to answer questions such as: Who am I? What happened in the past? How am I connected to those in the past? How has the world changed and how might it change in the future? Why does our personal sense of relatedness to the past change? This theme typically appears in courses in history and others that draw upon historical knowledge and habits.
Thirdly the study of people, places, and human-environment interactions assists students as they create their spatial views and geographic perspectives of the world beyond their personal locations. Students need the knowledge, skills, and understanding to answer questions such as: Where are things located? Why are they located where they are? What do we mean by "region"? How do landforms change? What implications do these changes have for people? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with area studies and geography.
Fourthly, personal identity is shaped by one's culture, by groups, and by institutional influences. Students should consider such questions as: How do people learn? Why do people behave as they do? What influences how people learn, perceive, and grow? How do people meet their basic needs in a variety of contexts? How do individuals develop from youth to adulthood? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with psychology and anthropology.
Again, institutions such as schools, churches, families, government agencies, and the courts play an integral role in people's lives. It is important that students learn how institutions are formed, what controls and influences them, how they influence individuals and culture, and how they are maintained or changed. Students may address questions such as: What is the role of institutions in this and other societies? How am I influenced by institutions? How do institutions change? What is my role in institutional change? In schools this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with sociology, anthropology, psychology, political science, and history.
Understanding the historical development of structures of power, authority, and governance and their evolving functions in society and other parts of the world is essential for developing civic competence. In exploring this theme, students confront questions such as: What is power? What forms does it take? Who holds it? How is it gained, used, and justified? What is legitimate authority? How are governments created, structured, maintained, and changed? How can individual rights be protected within the context of majority rule? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with government, politics, political science, history, law, and other social sciences.
Furthermore, because people have wants that often exceed the resources available to them, a variety of ways have evolved to answer such questions as: What is to be produced? How is production to be organized? How are goods and services to be distributed? What is the most effective allocation of the factors of production (land, labor, capital, and management)? In schools, this theme typically appears in units and courses dealing with economic concepts and issues.
Modern life as we know it would be impossible without technology and the science that supports it. But technology brings with it many questions: Is new technology always better than old? What can we learn from the past about how new technologies result in broader social change, some of which is unanticipated? How can we cope with the ever-increasing pace of change? How can we manage technology so that the greatest number of people benefit from it? How can we preserve our fundamental values and beliefs in the midst of technological change? This theme draws upon the natural and physical sciences, social sciences, and the humanities, and appears in a variety of social studies courses, including history, geography, economics, civics, and government.
However, the realities of global interdependence require understanding the increasingly important and diverse global connections among world societies and the frequent tension between national interests and global priorities. Students will need to be able to address such international issues as health care, the environment, human rights, economic competition and interdependence, age-old ethnic enmities, and political and military alliances. This theme typically appears in units or courses dealing with geography, culture, and economics, but may also draw upon the natural and physical sciences and the humanities.
Finally, an understanding of civic ideals and practices of citizenship is critical to full participation in society and is a central purpose of the social studies. Students confront such questions as: What is civic participation and how can I be involved? How has the meaning of citizenship evolved? What is the balance between rights and responsibilities? What is the role of the citizen in the community and the nation, and as a member of the world community? How can I make a positive difference? In schools, this theme typically appears in units or courses dealing with history, political science, cultural anthropology, and fields such as global studies, law-related education, and the humanities.
REFERENCES
Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, (1998) NCSS Publications. Waldorf, Maryland.
Okam, C.C (1998). Teaching Issues, Insights & Problems in the social studies education in Nigeria: Deka Publications Jos.
Banks, J. A. (1977). Strategy for teaching ethnic studies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J. A. and Clegg, A. A. (1977). Teaching Strategies for the Social Studies: Inquiry, Valuing and Decision making: Reading Addison – Wesley Publication Company.
Inquiry page (2007) knowledge begins with asking questions http://www.inquiry.uiuc.edu/inquiry/process.php3
Adam Fletcher (n.d) for SoundOut Student Voice in School Building Leadership
What can students really do to lead schools? Retrieved fron the internet at http://www.soundout.org/article.105.html
SOCIAL ACTION
SOCIAL ACTION
By social action we mean organized activity that seeks to improve human welfare, deepen civic culture and develop group life and commitment to others. Such a definition entails looking at the cultivation of a just and caring communal life. As such it involves a direct appeal to values and principles - and this will usually be grounded in some sort of shared belief system such as those that develop within religious institutions and social movements. Within the school social teaching and ideas such as: the dignity of the human person; human rights and duties; the social nature of the person; the common good; relationship, subsidiarity and socialisation; solidarity and options for the poor are geared towards social action.
However In sociology, social actions refer to any action that takes into account the actions and reactions of other individuals and is modified based on those events. Social action is a concept developed by Max Weber that explores interaction between humans in society. The concept of social action is used to observe how certain behaviors are modified in certain environments. The impact of social action is clearly seen in the development of norms and customs and everyday interaction between people.
TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTION
Rational actions
Rational actions (also known as value-rational ones, wertrational): actions which are taken because it leads to a valued goal, but with no thought of its consequences and often without consideration of the appropriateness of the means chosen to achieve it ('the end sanctifies the means')
Instrumental action
Instrumental action (also known as value relation, goal-instrumental ones, zweckrational): actions which are planned and taken after evaluating the goal in relation to other goals, and after thorough consideration of various means (and consequences) to achieve it.
Affectional action
Affectional action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to one's emotions, to express personal feelings. For examples, cheering after a victory, crying at a funeral would be affectional actions.
Traditional actions:
Traditional actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certaing situations. An example would be putting on clothes or relaxing on Sundays. Some traditional actions can become a cultural artifact.
SOCIAL ACTION AND EDUCATION
This has to do with the ability of education to develop students into social actors to enable them make rational decisions and solve problems within their societies. A social actor is refers to an individual who makes a deliberate effort to influence his or her social environment, including its laws, public policy, norms, values, and the distribution of wealth within it. (Okam 1998)
However one cannot expect pupils to freely follow decisions set to and for them .According to Banks (1977:11) argues that the individual must be able to chose freely from many alternative courses of action it his or her response is to be characterized as decision making.
REFERENCES
Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, (1998) NCSS Publications. Waldorf, Maryland.
Okam, C.C (1998). Teaching Issues, Insights & Problems in the social studies education in Nigeria: Deka Publications Jos.
Banks, J. A. (1977). Strategy for teaching ethnic studies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
DECISION MAKING AND SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
The following 14 Choices are taken from Dr. Patmor's dissertation suggesting ways that students can be involved in decision within the school society.
1. Deciding the number of employees in each school position. Students can be involved in prescribing the personnel resources dedicated to a topic in order to better meet their needs. In the process they can learn about the budgetary ability and the systemic structuring of the education system.
2. Selecting textbooks and instructional materials. Who better to choose what students can learn from than students themselves? With appropriate instruction and guidance from adults, students can critically review the tools their peers can use in class. Students can learn critical thinking and group process, as well as examine the dominant cultural and social influences on schooling.
3. Selecting a new principal when there is a vacancy. School leadership requires an palpable commitment to constituency; for students, these overt gestures should go choosing prom night colors or class songs. With training in authentic student voice and meaningful student involvement, students can partner with adults to hire principals who are responsive and engaging. Lessons from this process include communication skills, teamwork, and structural procedures.
4. Consulting with principal when other vacancies are filled. By working as partners in school leadership students can support principals' decision-making. This form of consultation encourages principal leadership while securing the responsiveness and deliberation staff hiring should have. Students can learn about decision-making processes, collaboration, and personnel management.
5. Deciding what is to be taught. Schools can become responsive to the needs and dreams of students through student-led course selection. This allows current technology, social issues, and student voice to become engaged in the classroom; in turn, students can learn about current events and develop critical thinking in an appropriate, applicable context.
6. Deciding which teaching methods will be used. What better classroom allies do students need than teachers themselves? Learning about teaching methods, multiple intelligences, and classroom delivery can help students become more empathetic and understanding of the pressures and possibilities of school; it can also help them develop course-specific knowledge and rigorous knowledge application.
7. Deciding which classes teachers will teach. When linguistic learners are crammed into a room with a kinesthetic teacher, there is not a lot of room for compromise or balance. Students guidance in teacher assignments can help school leaders establish clear connections between teacher characteristics and student engagement. Students learn about their own needs and become more apt at identifying possible areas of growth and learning.
8. Deciding which classes students will take. Educators are striving to find relevancy in the lives of young people today. Engaging students in class selection will encourage young people to become more committed learners and to see the connections between school and life. They can also learn about current issues, social pressure, and classroom management.
9. Deciding how time will be used during the day. In many schools the scheduling of the school day has become an enigmatic brew of "on days" and "off days," colored and coded and confused to no ends. Student involvement will allow a more user-driven, simplified approach to meeting the needs of students. It will also encourage students to apply their math, communication, and assessment skills.
10. Deciding how the school building will be used. Students can help determine the necessary class sizes, refurbishing components, and redesign considerations by applying their experiences in the physical school plant. They can also become ambassadors for the school as a community resource. They can learn about individual and community needs, as well as building consensus among users.
11. Making discipline and classroom management policies. Students are often more harsh than adults in developing policies. This process can help educators learn about the valid concerns students have about discipline, and can unveil the oft secret feeling many young people feel schools perpetuate. This process can help teach them about making wise choices and accountability.
12. Deciding issues concerning extracurricular activities. Over-emphasis on athletic activities may be out of sync with student interests. Student involvement in this area can encourage new thinking about extracurricular activities and their role in the school environment. Students can also learn about budgeting, decision-making, and advocacy skills.
13. Determining how available funds are to be spent. Understanding the intricacies of school funding can help students become informed consumers and partners in schools. Students can also develop creative solutions to school funding issues. The can learn applied mathematics, current issues in government spending, and social factors influencing school funding.
14. Planning activities for teacher in-service days. Student guidance can help teachers become more responsive to student needs, and ensure student empathy for teachers. This process can teach consensus and empathy, as well as lessons about scheduling, issues in schools, and funding.
REFERENCES
Adam Fletcher (n.d) for SoundOut Student Voice in School Building Leadership
What can students really do to lead schools? Retrieved fron the internet at http://www.soundout.org/article.105.html
INQUIRY PROCESS AND SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
INQUIRY PROCESS AND SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION
Okam (1998:120) says inquiry represents one of the ways of making sense out of what we experience. It requires thinking among other things, like intellectual operations so that an individual can make their own meaning out of what they experience, thus inquiry process cab be define as the a problem solving strategy where critical thinking and guided discovery is applied towards arriving at a solution. In other words, the inquiry method of instruction is the process by which students arrive at an understanding of concepts by themselves and the responsibility for learning rests with them but guided by the teacher.
The basic outline of what the inquiry process includes.
It begins with the desire to discover. Meaningful questions are inspired by genuine curiosity about real-world experiences. A question or a problem comes into focus at this stage, and the learner begins to define or describe what it is.
Some real examples of questions in this stage in the process are:
· "Why is crime eminent in our society?
· "When will the world experience absolute peace?"
· "Why does the moon change shape?"
Of course, questions are redefined throughout the learning process. Questions naturally lead to the next stage in the process: investigation.
Taking the curious impulse and putting it into action is what we call the investigation process. At this stage the learner begins to gather information: researching resources, studying, crafting an experiment, observing, or interviewing, to name a few. The learner may recast the question, refine a line of query, or plunge down a new path that the original question did not-or could not-anticipate. The information-gathering stage becomes a self-motivated process that is wholly owned by the engaged learner.
As the information gathered in the investigation stage begins to coalesce, the learner begins to make connections. The ability at this stage to synthesize meaning is the creative spark that forms all new knowledge. The learner now undertakes the creative task of shaping significant new thoughts, ideas, and theories outside of his/her prior experience.
At this point in the circle of inquiry, learners share their new ideas with others. The learner begins to ask others about their own experiences and investigations. Shared knowledge is a community-building process, and the meaning of their investigation begins to take on greater relevance in the context of the learner's society. Comparing notes, discussing conclusions, and sharing experiences are all examples of this process in action.
Reflection is just that: taking the time to look back at the question, the research path, and the conclusions made. The learner steps back, takes inventory, makes observations, and possibly makes new decisions. Has a solution been found? Do new questions come into light? What might those questions be?
INQUIRY PROCESS AND EDUCATION
Enquiry has certain major component and it is these component that establishes its link with education. They include
- knowledge
- Attitudes and values
- Process
Knowledge: - this here suggested that there are certain things that one must know in other to be a successful inquirer. This includes awareness about the nature of knowledge itself as well as the knowledge about the basic tools of inquiry, their function and how to use them without which we know that education becomes static. However we know that knowledge is constantly changing, so through inquiry education determines the truth.
Thus Bayer in Okam (1998:122) states that “knowledge is rarely complete, we cannot secure absolutely all the information necessary for making a judgment that will stand forever, this is partly due to the difficulties of locating and collecting all information as well as the fact that, knowledge is a product of human mind and is subject to the peculiarities of that mind at work” therefore knowledge is the basis of all form of education.
Attitude and values:- it is expected that the inquirer must be objective, respect evidence as the test for accuracy. He must be tolerant of ambiguity and must be curious and imaginative. Bayer (1971) further makes it clear that “each of these attitudes and values plays an important part in inquiry as well as in education either by making it possible or by sustaining it”
The process: - however refers to the process of arriving at decision making. It requires one to employ information to consciously examine an issue as it relate to an individual as well as others to who are involved or connected with it.
KNOWLEDGE CREATION AND DECISION MAKING
If we carefully look at the nature and structure of the society today on will rightly see the growing social and personal problems. According to Banks (1973) “the nature of human problems may differ in different periods of history, it seems that people have the amazing capacity to create more problem that they are able to solve in the times and place.” This now leaves the school with the responsibility of develop in students the skill of problem solving and decision making so they can survive in the ever changing society.
There is the need for social studies teacher to know that every one is born with the ability to create some form of knowledge and make rational decisions. Decision making is a skill which must be learned and developed by the students over time. In 1998, then-doctoral candidate George Patmor conducted a statewide survey of high school schools in Kentucky. He measured 310 students and adults opinions about how students should be involved in school decision-making.
REFERENCES
Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, (1998) NCSS Publications. Waldorf, Maryland.
Okam, C.C (1998). Teaching Issues, Insights & Problems in the social studies education in Nigeria: Deka Publications Jos.
Banks, J. A. (1977). Strategy for teaching ethnic studies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J. A. and Clegg, A. A. (1977). Teaching Strategies for the Social Studies: Inquiry, Valuing and Decision making: Reading Addison – Wesley Publication Company.
Inquiry page (2007) knowledge begins with asking questions http://www.inquiry.uiuc.edu/inquiry/process.php3
Adam Fletcher (n.d) for SoundOut Student Voice in School Building Leadership
What can students really do to lead schools? Retrieved fron the internet at http://www.soundout.org/article.105.html
Education, Teaching and Social Studies Education
INTRODUCTION
Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgment and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation. Education means 'to draw out', facilitating realisation of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, social studies, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.
The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. (Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.) For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life provide far more instruction than does formal schooling (thus Mark Twain's admonition to "never let school interfere with your education"). Family members may have a profound educational effect — often more profound than they realize — though family teaching may function very informally.
TEACHING
Teachers need the ability to understand a subject well enough to convey its essence to a new generation of students. The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand and retain.
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